The mind: foundation of kamma

“Therefore, bhikkhus, one should often reflect upon one’s own mind thus:

‘For a long time this mind has been defiled by lust (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha).’

Beings are corrupted because the mind is corrupted.

Beings are purified because the mind is purified.”

(SN 22.100, Dutiyagaddulabaddha-sutta)

The Buddha urged us to reflect frequently upon the long cycles of saṃsāra, for throughout this immeasurable journey, our minds have been repeatedly defiled by greed, hatred, and delusion. When mental states are defiled, beings become defiled and troubled. When mental states become pure and clean, beings too become pure and clean. This post seeks to explain how the defilement of mind leads to the diversity of kamma and the wide variety of existences among beings, based on the Dutiyagaddulabaddha-sutta and commentary.

The Mind: More Diverse than All Beings

To illustrate how influential the mind is, the Buddha referred in this sutta to a painted diagram called 'caraṇa'. This painting was used by brahmins who adhered to over ninety different doctrines collectively referred to as brāhmaṇapāsatthika. These followers would travel with these paintings and display them as teaching tools, depicting how good actions lead to good results, and bad actions lead to bad results. Each image served to communicate moral cause and effect, making complex doctrines easier to understand for listeners.

Yet, despite the detail and complexity of these paintings, the Buddha declared that the mind is even more intricate and diverse: "Even that picture called ‘caraṇa’ has been designed in its diversity by the mind, yet the mind is even more diverse than that picture called ‘caraṇa'." Why? Because all of that variety originates from the mind itself. Whatever diversity exists externally—in image, form, or teaching—is first conceived and structured within the mind.

That is why the Buddha said: "Bhikkhus, I do not see any other order of living beings so diversified as those in the animal realm. Even those beings in the animal realm have been diversified by the mind, yet the mind is even more diverse than those beings in the animal realm."

The diversity we observe in beings, whether in the animal realm or elsewhere, is an expression of the diversity in mental volitions. The mind is manifold, and its results, whether pleasurable or painful, mirror the underlying complexity of the mind.

For instance, the animal realm showcases beings of astonishing variety. Some live in the crushing depths of oceans or the extremes of heat and cold. Their bodies differ in size, shape, structure, and ability, some are transparent, some emit light, others bear vivid patterns and colours. Compared to humans, whose form and function are generally similar, animals show much broader variation. This is why, even among all groups of beings, the Buddha considered the animal realm the most visibly diverse, and this, too, he attributed to the diversity of the mind.

Thus, when beings are seen to be diverse, whether in the animal realm or elsewhere, this is a result or the fruition of the underlying diversity in mental volitions and power of the toxic defilements.

How the Diverse Minds Cause Diverse Beings

#1 Immediate Cause: Kamma-Viññāṇa – The Mind that Gives Rise to Birth

The primary reason for the immense diversity among beings lies in the mental states known as kamma-viññāṇa (the consciousness associated with kamma) which serve as the cause for new existence. Since these minds vary widely, the beings they bring into existence are likewise diverse. The Commentary explains this connection succinctly: “kammaciteneva cittitā” (SN Commentary, 2.299)—“formed by mind, shaped by kamma".

To better understand this, let us reflect on our own minds. Some people wish for a deva life. Others may hope to be reborn as monks, or even change gender in a future life. Some aspire to become brahmās in order to encounter a Buddha. Others may not want to be separated from their loved ones, partners, children, friends, and thus dedicate their wholesome actions with the subtle or strong intention of reuniting with them in future lives. These differing intentions reflect the variety of mental states–or the mind–active during the creation of kamma.

The variety of animal forms, some with two legs, others with four or more, is rooted in the diversity of kamma-viññāṇa at the moment of conception. When kamma ripens and produces a new existence, it delivers the being to a suitable realm and parental conditions according to the mental state that nurtured that kamma. One kind of kamma might lead to rebirth through parents with two legs, another through parents with four legs, and so on.

The resemblance between offspring and parents often reflects biological factors, but what determines which parents one is born to is ultimately kamma. It is kamma that delivers the being to the specific conditions for rebirth.

A vivid illustration of this can be found in the life of the hermit Sumedha, during the time of the Buddha Dīpaṅkara, four incalculable aeons and one hundred thousand world cycles ago. At that moment, Sumedha made a determined aspiration to attain Buddhahood. Behind him stood a woman named Sumittā, who aspired to become his wife when he attained Buddhahood. Over two thousand women stood behind her, each aspiring to become bhikkhunīs under his dispensation and attain Arahantship.

Though all these individuals journeyed together across vast spans of time, their aspirations and mental attitudes were not the same. Their underlying ignorance, craving, and clinging (avijjā, taṇhā, upādāna) were different, and as a result, so were their kammic outcomes.

Sumedha hermit, aspiring to perfect wisdom, cultivated the ten pāramī in thirty ways through great renunciations, and ultimately became the Buddha Gotama. Sumittā, whose aspiration was to become his wife, fulfilled her wish and became Yasodharā, the princess. The other women were reborn during the Buddha’s lifetime, became bhikkhunīs, and all attained Arahantship and Parinibbāna on the same day.

Although they travelled through the same span of time and fulfilled the same ten pāramī, the saṅkhāras (volitions) and the mental attitudes that shaped their kamma were different. Because their aspirations were different, their results were different. The kamma of Sumedha was not the same as the kamma of the others, and thus, the fruits of that kamma ripened in vastly different ways.

This same truth applies to all of us. Currently, those reading this have the freedom to choose. If one has not yet reached the end of saṃsāra and must continue in the cycle of rebirth, an important question arises: what kind of existence do you wish for? Now—while the opportunity remains—is the time to cultivate the type of kamma that leads to that desired outcome. This moment calls for careful reflection: what kind of life do we truly seek, and what kamma must we develop to realise it? The choice must be made wisely. If we act carelessly, without wisdom or mindful understanding, and allow unwholesome kamma to take root, it will bear fruit in the future. So, when that time comes, even if we feel deep regret and cry out, “I didn’t want this kind of kamma, this kind of result,” it will be too late—because the time to choose will already have passed.

As mentioned earlier, just as a painting begins in the imagination of the artist, with mental plans about colour, shape, and subject, the kammic results of all beings also begins with mental intention cultivated in this present moment. If a person’s mind is impure—rife with greed, hatred, and delusion—then the kamma created through that mind results in painful or unwholesome births, just as a dark, chaotic painting emerges from a disturbed mind. Conversely, when the mind is pure—guided by generosity, compassion, and wisdom—it produces beautiful and wholesome results, much like a serene and radiant painting. The purity or impurity of the mind at the time of volition becomes the brushstroke that shapes the entire canvas of future existence.

The defilements of the mind are not to be treated very lightly. When a being's lifespan comes to an end, they may return once more to the human realm if they are supported by a wholesome kamma. However, upon arriving in the human world, due to the continued influence and pressure of rāga (craving), dosa (hatred), and moha (delusion), they eventually fall again into the four apāya (woeful realms). Therefore, if one asks what the true and lasting home of beings is, the Buddha said: the four woeful realms. These realms are, in truth, the perpetual dwelling place for those still trapped in saṃsāra. In contrast, realms such as the human world, the deva realms, and the brahmā realms are merely temporary places—brief visits granted when favourable conditions are present. For those who haven't seen the Dhamma, they are merely visiting the human and other blissful realms before going down to the woeful realms again.

The Dhammapada Commentary (1.6) states: "For one who is heedless in wholesome qualities such as tranquillity (samatha) and insight (vipassanā), the four apāya are like one's own home." This is because when one lives without heedfulness—without cultivating kusala kamma, restraining defilements, or purifying the mind—the natural pull of unwholesome kamma draws the being repeatedly into the woeful realms. These are not accidental destinations; they are where the untrained and unguarded mind tends to fall by default. Reflect for a moment on the thoughts that frequently arise during moments when you're not engaged in wholesome actions. You'll notice how easily the mind drifts into fantasies, cravings, resentments, and all manner of defiled thoughts—often far darker than we care to admit. These thoughts are not passive; they shape and condition future kamma. When such kamma ripens, it leads to rebirth in various forms of suffering and distress across saṃsāra.

The Buddha explained that one who does not understand their own mind acts heedlessly—led by defilements—without recognising what is wholesome or unwholesome. Such a person plants seeds of unwholesome kamma, leading to future existences that are unpleasant and painful.

• Hell realms: beings endure non-stop intense suffering and torment.

• Animal realm: beings live in fear, struggle, hunger and confusion.

• Asura and peta realms: beings are consumed by hunger, deformity, and frustration.

By contrast, the purified mind leads to favourable rebirth:

• Deva realms: beings enjoy refined sensual pleasures.

• Brahmā realms: beings dwell in serenity and purity beyond sensuality.

• Human realm: beings have the unique chance to practise the Dhamma, fulfil pāramīs and attain liberation or even Buddhahood.

(It's helpful to read the previously published post on kamma alongside this post for fuller understanding).

Why do beings' mental states become impure?

Because their mental activity is governed by two deeply rooted forces: ignorance (avijjā) and craving (taṇhā). These are the roots of all mental defilement. When ignorance conceals the truth, beings fail to discern between what is wholesome and unwholesome. Craving then clings to perceptions and intentions, compelling actions shaped by delusion.

The diversity of beings arises from this very mechanism. Because beings lack wise attention (yoniso manasikāra), they do not see nāma and rūpa as they truly are—impermanent, unsatisfactory, and not-self. Instead, they cling to perceived identities like “man,” “woman,” “person,” or “being,” which feeds further delusion and craving. This leads to repeated cycles of saṃsāra, with mental states shaping kamma and kamma shaping existence.

This ignorance and craving co-arise with sakkāya-diṭṭhi—the view that there is a self in the five aggregates. The Buddha compared this in the sutta to a dog tied to a post, circling endlessly around it. Just so, beings are bound to the five aggregates by their wrong view, endlessly revolving in the cycle of rebirth. And what does this produce? A vast array of beings, each born into different conditions, each life reflecting the mental states that produced the kamma leading to that existence. This is why the Buddha emphasised:

“One should frequently reflect on one’s own mind: ‘For a long time this mind has been defiled by greed, hatred, and delusion.’ Beings are defiled by the defilements of the mind. Beings are purified by the purification of the mind.”

Other Reasons For Diversity of Kamma and the Minds

The commentary also offers further reasons why the mind—and the kamma associated with it—differs among beings, explaining how various kinds of kamma are accumulated. These differences arise due to the realm of rebirth, variations in the sense bases, sense doors, and sense objects, as well as distinctions in conventional terms, gender, and modes of expression.

#2: Realms (Bhūmi)

When the realms of beings differ, their minds and temperaments naturally differ as well. Consider the beings closest to us in everyday life—such as pets. While you may be engaging in meditation or performing meritorious deeds everyday, your pets do not possess the mental inclination to listen to the Dhamma or deliberately cultivate wholesome kamma. This highlights the stark contrast between the human and animal realms. Such differences in realms and modes of existence lead to corresponding differences in mental tendencies and inclinations.

Animals lack the mental disposition to develop and nurture profound kamma aimed at liberation from the suffering of saṃsāra. By contrast, as a human, you are capable of aspiring to wholesome kamma and liberation—even if the strength of that aspiration may vary from person to person. Some individuals have little interest in liberation, while others are deeply committed to it.

Thus, when mental states differ, the types of kamma that are formed and nurtured also become distinct. As a result, the fruits of those kammas likewise vary.

#3: Sense Base (Vatthu)

When the material bases of the sense faculties vary, mental attitudes inevitably vary as well. These sense bases—such as the eye for seeing—are the physical supports for consciousness. If these are absent or impaired, the way a being perceives and responds to the world changes significantly. For instance, beings born without eyes do not perceive visual forms, and thus the arising of taṇhā (craving) related to visual stimuli differs greatly from those who can see.

The Commentary illustrates this point with a helpful analogy: imagine a blind person covered in thick, oily grime being handed a clean white garment. Even if told, “This is perfectly clean,” they cannot fully appreciate or confirm it. In contrast, a person with sight can clearly discern whether the garment is clean or soiled. The blind person may feel nothing at all toward it, whereas someone with vision might experience attraction or aversion. This shows how the presence or absence of sense faculties shapes the mental states and the kamma.

Similarly, the mental experiences of a person who can hear are fundamentally different from those of someone who is deaf. This confirms that when the material bases for sensory experience—eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body—differ, the resulting mental attitudes also differ accordingly.

To take the point further, would a blind person have the same desire to dress attractively as someone with sight? Probably not in the same way. They may still have a general wish to appear presentable, but the underlying intention, image, and motivation would differ. This example illustrates that while certain mental attitudes—like the desire for adornment—can still arise, they do so in ways that are shaped by the physical conditions of the body. This is the nature of mental diversity arising from the diversity of the physical state and sense doors.

#4: Sense Doors (Dvāra)

When sense doors (dvāra) differ, mental attitudes also differ. These doors—eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind—are gateways through which the mind and mental factors (citta and cetasika) engage with the world, much like how a house door allows entry and exit.

For example, in the realm of formless brahmā (arūpa bhūmi), there is no body and thus no cognition through the sense doors occur. They engage only with mental objects (dhammārammaṇa), not with sensory inputs like colour, sound, or taste. So, the mental experience of such beings cannot be compared to those with a physical form and body. Even among humans, the absence or dysfunction of a sense door, such as in deafness, affects perception and mental tendencies. A person who cannot hear will have different mental reactions than someone who can.

Therefore, differences in sense doors lead to differences in mental states. Since kamma arises from mental intention, varied mental attitudes naturally produce varied kamma.

#5: Sense Objects (Ārammaṇa)

When sense objects differ, mental attitudes also become diverse. The world presents a wide variety of sensory experiences, and individuals who encounter different objects form unique mental responses.

For example, consider alcohol. The wealthy may consume high-quality alcohol with a strong sense of attachment, while the poor may consume lower-grade alcohol with a different mindset. These differences in sense objects give rise to different forms of clinging, avijjā (ignorance), and upādāna (attachment), resulting in distinct mental states and kamma. Preferences also vary greatly—some people like cats, others don’t; some enjoy meat and fish, others avoid them. Even when performing wholesome deeds, the mental attitude of someone offering the Saṅgha robes will differ from that of someone offering meals, as each sense object gives rise to its own distinct perception and emotional response.

In short, because beings experience a variety of sense objects, their mental states—and the kamma they cultivate—naturally become varied and unique.

#6: Gender and Conventional Terms

Another cause for the diversity of mental states and kamma lies in differences of gender, form, and characteristics—what the texts refer to as liṅganānatta. According to the Aṭṭhasālinī (1.108), “Kamma determines gender, and so does perception. Perception creates distinction, whether as a woman or a man.” This means that past kamma and mental intentions shape the physical form and gender one is born with.

A well-known example is the hermit Sumedha and his companions, as mentioned earlier. While Sumedha aspired to attain Buddhahood as a man, some women in the assembly wished to continue being reborn as women. Because their aspirations and mental states differed, the kamma generated was also different, leading to corresponding rebirths.

When kamma ripens, beings are reborn as male or female, and social identities form around this—daughter, son, mother, father, and so on. Over time, these distinctions expand through the use of conventional language: one is labelled a man, another a woman; one a human, another a deva or animal. These terms arise based on bodily form and perception and are not uniformly applied across beings.

Such designations influence perception, which in turn shapes mental attitudes. When someone sees others as “man” or “woman” rather than as nāma-rūpa (mind-and-matter), it leads to desire, craving, and the formation of specific intentions. A person who strongly wishes to be reborn as a woman or man cultivates the kamma for that rebirth. Similarly, one who aspires to become a deva, brahmā, or human generates kamma aligned with that goal, which takes effect when the conditions are right.

To elaborate further, although animals do not use structured language as humans do, they still communicate through sounds, cries, gestures, and behavioural cues. While we may not fully comprehend the specific meanings behind these expressions, it is evident that animals convey different emotional and intentional states. Although they lack complex linguistic conventions, their instinctive responses indicate a basic system of designation shaped by perception. These mental patterns, even without verbal labelling, still influence volitional actions. In this way, animals may also generate wholesome or unwholesome kamma, conditioned by how they perceive and respond to their environment. Perception, even at a non-verbal level, plays a vital role in shaping kamma across all sentient beings.

Ultimately, the diversity of kamma stems from the diversity of perception and mental attitudes, much of which is shaped by conventional designations such as “man,” “woman,” “human,” "animal", or “deva.” Because these perceptions differ, the kamma formed through them lead to varied results across beings.

Reflecting on the Mind

In essence, the Buddha’s declaration, that he saw no order of beings as diverse as animals, and yet the mind even more diverse, is a call to understand the root cause of that diversity. The defiled mind shapes kamma. That kamma shapes future birth. Poverty, prosperity, deformity, beauty, fortune or suffering – these are not arbitrary. They arise from the mind’s volitional formations. Thus, it is vital to understand your own mental states behind every action you engage in.

“For a long time this mind has been defiled by greed, hatred, and delusion.”

Only by deeply reflecting on our minds and purifying them can we reshape the direction of saṃsāra, turning it away from darkness and towards the possibility of liberation.

The mind is the great painter of saṃsāra. With every intention, every volition, and every act of attention, it draws the future into being: be it beautiful or painful. If defilements persist, the canvas of rebirth will be muddled and woeful. But if we purify the mind through Dhamma, what is drawn becomes luminous and desirable, which can even pave a straight and easy path towards liberation. In this way, one can strengthen the understanding that the mind itself is the very foundation upon which your future is drawn.

[*Written with reference to a Dhamma talk on the Mind by Ven. Pa-Auk Sayadaw.]