Dependent Origination: Saṅkhāra conditions Viññāṇa

Saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṃ

With volition as condition, consciousness arises.

Before we delve into the explanation of how volition conditions consciousness, it is firstly important to understand the differences between terminologies used for kamma in the dependent origination framework.

Kamma and Saṅkhāra

The reason why the Buddha used different terminologies to explain kamma is to stress its importance. The reason the terminology 'saṅkhāra' is used in place of kamma is to highlight the productive cetanā (volition) because as mentioned in several suttas, 'cetanāham bhikkave, kammaṃ vadāmi': 'Oh monks, it is cetanā that I call kamma'. Cetanā is a mental factor, which has a primary function to 'collect', 'gather' or 'organise' the other associated mental formations. Following this gathering, there's a stimulation of an action. While cetanā is commonly referred to as 'volition', one other translation would be 'stimulation' as it possesses the capacity to invigorate all other formations. Due to this influential quality, individuals engage in both wholesome and unwholesome mental (manokamma), verbal (vacīkamma), and bodily (kāyakamma) actions. These actions, collectively termed as kamma, don't occur autonomously or out of nowhere but are spurred by the stimulation of cetanā. That's why cetanā is also referred to as kamma, as it has the capability to initiate actions. Due to such capability, this productive cetanā is called 'saṅkhāra' in the context of dependent origination.

The Buddha taught that all conditioned formations arise not from a single or independent cause but from multiple causes, and no formation arises from one primary root cause. Among these causes, the important ones are kilesa (defilements) and kamma. To attain liberation from the cycle of rebirths (saṃsāra-vaṭṭa), it is crucial to eliminate defilements (kilesa) as kamma cannot be eradicated. This is because kamma can only manifest its results when it is accompanied by its ally, the kilesa. Without the assistance of kilesa, kamma remains dormant, much like a seed unable to sprout into a tree without the support of soil and water.

In Paṭhamabhava-sutta (AN 3.76), the Buddha mentioned that "kamma is the field, consciousness is the seed, and craving is the moisture. The consciousness of sentient beings—shrouded by ignorance and fettered by craving—is established in [their respective] realm. That’s how there is rebirth into a new state of existence in the future." Here it is important to note that 'consciousness' means 'rebirth-linking consciousness' (paṭisandhi-citta), the consciousness that arises at the very first moment of rebirth. Moreover, it is important to stress here again that the combination of ignorance and craving, the two main leaders, are the primary culprits for the continuous rounds of rebirth but kamma cannot be eradicated, it just loses its potency or remain dormant when conditions are not aligned. The Buddha said that "kilesanirodhe kammanirodho," which translates to "only when the defilements cease, does kamma cease". Therefore, understanding the mechanics of kamma becomes exceedingly significant in explaining the Noble Truth of Origin of Suffering.

Three Types of Kamma

Before we delve into how volition or productive cetanā (saṅkhāra) conditions consciousness, it is important to first understand the three types of kamma that one can accumulate, categorised based on when the effect will arise. The first is 'diṭṭhadhamma-vedanīya-kamma': the type of kamma that yields its result in this very life when conditions are right. Therefore, at the end of this life, this kamma loses its potency and becomes 'ahosi kamma' if that kamma did not ripen (ineffective kamma, or a kamma that no longer possesses any force). The second type is 'upapajja-vedanīya-kamma': the type of kamma that gives its result in the immediate following (second) life. If the conditions are not conducive for the kamma to ripen in the following life, it also becomes 'ahosi kamma', losing its kammic force. Lastly, there is 'aparāpariya-vedanīya-kamma', which only takes effect starting from the third life and will not expire, remaining ready to yield its effect when conditions are right, as long as one is entrapped in saṃsāra. This kamma expires only when one becomes an arahant and the final life ends. This form of kamma persists as long as one remains bound by the cycle of rebirths. That's why even the Buddha and his chief disciples had to confront significant saṃsāric 'debts' (unwholesome kammic outcomes) even in their final existences.

There are several accounts in the texts regarding the Buddha's twelve unwholesome kamma resultants. For instance, in a past life, the Bodhisatta, known as Nanda, served as a disciple under a Paccekabuddha named Sabbābhibhu. Unfortunately, Nanda falsely accused his teacher, the Paccekabuddha, of immoral behaviour. As a consequence of this wrongful verbal act, he endured a hundred thousand years of suffering in hell. In subsequent human rebirths, he faced unjust accusations of misconduct. Finally, in his last life as the Buddha, he was publicly accused by Ciñjamāna of being responsible for her pregnancy, despite the accusation being false. Another notable example would be of the Buddha's chief disciple, Venerable Mahāmoggallāna, being beaten to death by robbers. This was a result of a grave crime committed by Moggallāna in a past life. In one of his past lives, Moggallāna perpetrated a disgraceful act: he murdered his own blind parents by beating them to death. Believing they were under attack by robbers, Moggallāna's elderly blind parents pleaded for their beloved son to save himself. Unbeknownst to them, it was their own son who, disguised as a robber, committed this atrocious deed. As a consequence of this terrible crime, even in his last life as a chief disciple and an arahant, he had to face a violent death. These are all examples of 'aparāpariya-vedanīya-kamma'.

How Kamma Accumulates

In the framework of Paṭiccasamuppāda, the rebirth-linking consciousness (viññāṇa) arises solely with the presence of kamma, as expressed in the principle "saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṃ". In the initial stages of Paṭiccasamuppāda, kamma is referred to as saṅkhāra because it has leads to the airsing of mental and material phenomena. Here, saṅkhāra can be categorised into two types: kusala and akusala kamma and to better explain from Abhidhamma perspective, the saṅkhāra that conditions the rebirth-linking consciousness refers to the cetanā that are associated with these 29 cittas ― 12 akusala cittas and 17 kusala cittas. Since both kusala and akusala kamma possess the capacity to generate mentality and materiality, they earn the designation of saṅkhāra or productive kamma.

In Abhidhamma, there are 89 or 121 types of consciousness (viññāṇa/citta), depending on the specific classification used. However, within the framework of dependent origination, consciousness refers specifically to viññāṇa/citta associated with the 32 mundane resultant consciousness. This distinction is important as we are discussing consciousness that arises as a result of kamma.

From the perspective of "kamma-paccaya" (the condition of kamma) in Paṭṭhāna (conditional relations), all mental volitions or cetanās are considered kamma according to the sahajāta-kamma condition as these cetanās possess the ability to prompt or motivate other mental factors. Essentially, cetanā takes the lead, with other mental factors following suit. Due to such stimulation, kamma accumulates.

In our daily lives, we engage in wholesome and unwholesome mental, verbal, and physical actions, and all of these actions (kamma) are prompted by cetanā. This cetanā accumulates within us day by day, maturing, and awaiting the right conditions to produce its effects. In the mental process, the stimulating force of cetanā is the strongest during the impulsion (javana) mind moments because only in these javana mind moments do new potent kamma accumulate. The cetanā in these impulsion moments are the most powerful, thereby causing new kamma. Kamma is always present in the continuous mental process of sentient beings. This mental process is incessant, operating without pause from the incomprehensible start of saṃsāra to the present moment. As one mind moment fades away, the next arises without any gap. The energy of kamma persists and accumulates within the continuity of mind (citta-santati). Mind continues to arise continuously, except for two exceptional instances: during the attainment of cessation (nirodha-samāpatti) and in the asaññasatta (brāhmas without mental process) realm. Aside from these exceptions, the mental process remains ever-active, and arising and perishing moment by moment without any breaks in-between.

Driven by the force of the initial volition (cetanā), when the first mind moment ceases, the next mind moment, infused with cetanā, emerges. This perpetuates the flow of volition (cetanā or kamma) within the never-ending stream of mind moments. This cyclical process continues incessantly, with the kammic power streaming continuously as long as a sentient being remains bound in saṃsāra. This kammic imprint remains embedded within the continuity of mind, where the potentiality and possibility of its power can mature and ultimately give rise to the inception of a new life as well as other effects within those lives. This underscores the Buddha's teaching of "saṅkhārapaccayā viññānaṃ."

Cetanā is always associated with the mind as one of the mental factor, and always arises together with the mind with no exception. Thus, it exists in every mind as a universal mental factor. Some cetanā are linked with resultant consciousness (vipākacitta) or functional consciousness (kiriyacitta) and these kinds of cetanā do not accumulate kamma. Only the cetanā associated with a wholesome or unwholesome impulsion moments (javana-citta) has the potential to yield results. Thus, kamma accumulates over time and eventually manifests results when conditions are right.

Saṅkhāra conditions ....

When conditions are right, productive cetanā, kamma, or saṅkhāra gives rise to consciousness (viññāṇa) in two instances: at the moment of rebirth (paṭisandhi) and throughout the present existence (pavatti) as resultant consciousness (vipāka-citta).

(a) Saṅkhāra conditions Rebirth-Linking Consciousness (Paṭisandhi-viññāṇa)

All the wholesome and unwholesome actions one has undertaken from countless past lives until now accumulate as kamma, and this kammic 'shadow' persists throughout saṃsāra. As one approaches death, the kamma amassed over this lifetime or one's past lives influences one's mind. At the near-death moment, five impulsion mind moments (javana citta) arise, and these javana citta may be influenced by one wholesome or unwholesome kamma accumulated within this life or many past lives. During this transitional phase, one of the three types of manifestations of accumulated kamma arise:

1) Kamma: Reflects the deeds performed in one's lifetime.

2) Kamma-nimitta: Represents the visual or sensory impressions or objects associated with past wholesome or unwholesome actions.

3) Gati-nimitta: Signifies glimpses of the following next life.

This accumulated kamma, which arises in the near-death impulsion moments, ripens and this kamma leads to rebirth in the new existence. In the moments nearing death, one experiences the consequences of past actions (kamma) and recalls specific deeds either wholesome or unwholesome. Alternatively, one may encounter kamma-nimitta, wherein the circumstances or objects related to previous actions are perceived. For instance, in revisiting an act of generosity, one might envision the objects offered or the recipients, while a past acts of akusala might evoke images of a weapon or stealing something. Lastly, one may see heavenly abodes, a beautiful house, or the womb of a mother for good rebirths, or hell fires, groups of animals, hungry ghosts or barren lands for woeful rebirths. In line with the Buddha’s teachings, the next destination is predetermined even before death at the time near one's last moment. At the moment of passing in the preceding life, kamma determines the subsequent rebirth destination. Without fail, an individual will swiftly transition to the next rebirth plane. There exists no intermediate existence bridging the gap between the previous and subsequent lives, or a soul or an 'atta' that moves onto the next existence. Driven by craving and ignorance, one arrives at a realm without realising it. Kamma orchestrates and shapes the forthcoming life, consequently leading sentient beings to be reborn in one of the 31 realms.

As soon as the last consciousness or death consciousness (cuti citta) of one's existence arises and perishes away, without any gap or intermediation, the rebirth-linking mind (paṭisandhi-citta) arises, marking one's rebirth in the following existence. 'Paṭi' means again or second time, and 'sandhi' means to reconnect or connection. This rebirth-linking consciousness arises as a result of wholesome or unwholesome kamma that ripens at the near-death moment of the previous existence. Kamma that appears at that moment is a condition for the arising of the new existence's rebirth-linking consciousness and thus, kamma (or saṅkhāra) conditions consciousness (viññāṇa). Within the framework of paṭiccasamuppāda, the statement "saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṃ" is notable because the framework's emphasis lies not on a specific "being" or "atta", but rather on the emergence of results solely due to kamma (which is saṅkhāra). There is no actor engaging in an action; rather, outcomes manifest solely due to kammic influences. There is no distinct individual or 'atta' carrying out actions; only causal factors are at play. There is no autonomous agent; rather, there is only the natural unfolding of causal phenomena. This process is subsequently attributed to a "doer" and then perceived as an "individual" due to the cankers (anusaya) of wrong view and ignorance.

As per the principle "kamma-vipāko acinteyyo," the outcome of kamma is exceedingly intricate and challenging to comprehend that it is almost inconceivable. That's why it is difficult to comprehend when being reborn in the same woeful realm such as hell, why some beings had to suffer more than the others, or when being reborn as a deva, why some enjoy greater sensual desires than others. Although there is no definitive answer, out of the many reasons, one key factor lies in the strength of 'cetanā' (volition). For instance, when hitting a tennis ball with great force, it will travel farther, whereas with less force, it will land closer. Similarly, in terms of kamma, despite accumulating the same wholesome or unwholesome deeds, the effect may vary depending on the intensity of mental volition. Stronger mental volition invested in accumulating kamma yields more pronounced effects. However, it's important to recognise that this is a general principle to be understood, as only the Buddha possesses the definitive understanding of kamma's workings. This ability is one of the ten powers ('dassa-bala') of the Buddha, wherein he possesses the ability to comprehend all kammic causality of all beings across past, present, and future lives. Hence, the Buddha said "kammavipāko acinteyyo", which emphasises that the effect of kamma is beyond comprehension or speculation. Due to this lack of such wisdom, the Buddha advises us with "na cintitabbo" — not to dwell on thinking about kamma as it can only lead one to become confused, and serves as an unproductive use of one's time and wisdom.

Suppose there are a hundred meditators practicing vipassanā. When observing the insight knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa) of these meditators, the Buddha would discern with clarity: "This one will progress to the insight knowledge of equanimity (saṅkhārupekkhā ñāṇa). That one will attain the status of a stream-enterer. Another will become a once-returner." and so on. Only the Buddha possessed the ability to provide precise and definitive answers because he comprehended the levels and stages of mental development of these meditators, a knowledge beyond the reach of ordinary individuals as this is also one of the ten powers (dassa-bala) of the Buddha. One reason among others for these disparities can be attributed to the 'cetanā' exerted by individuals in their bhāvanā (meditation) practice, both in their past and present lives, as well as the 'cetanā' associated with the paramīs fulfilled in both the past and present for the attainment of concentration and insight knowledge.

Differences at Human Rebirth: Three-Rooted, Two-Rooted and Non-Rooted

As previously mentioned, variations in the 'cetanā' (volition) behind individuals' actions lead to differences in the kammic outcomes. In the context of human rebirths, wholesome kamma serves as the determining factor since human rebirth is considered a fortunate/blissful rebirth. However, while only wholesome sense-sphere (kāmāvacara) kamma leads to human rebirth, individual differences regarding one's intellect arise based on whether wisdom (paññā) accompanies the mind during the accumulation of wholesome kamma.

A person whose rebirth-linking consciousness is detached from knowledge exhibits weak intelligence. Individuals with weak wisdom levels may often show signs of being slow in certain social and academic settings, or unable to respond to tasks or comprehend conversations promptly and directly. Conversely, an individual whose rebirth-linking consciousness is paired with superior wisdom typically demonstrates quick and high intelligence. However, if the strength of wisdom during the accumulation of wholesome kamma is merely average, their intelligence may also fall within the average range. Only individuals whose rebirth-linking consciousness is paired with wisdom have the potential to attain enlightenment as well as absorption in their current lifetime. Those born with rebirth-linking consciousness detached from knowledge, however, cannot achieve both enlightenment and absorption in this life. However, this does not mean that their meditation efforts and paramī are wasted. It simply implies that they may encounter certain limitations in their meditation.

Those whose rebirth-linking consciousness is accompanied by wisdom are referred to as three-rooted individuals (tihetuka), as their rebirth moment is grounded in alobha, adosa, and amoha (wisdom). Conversely, those lacking wisdom are termed two-rooted individuals (dvihetuka), as their rebirth-linking consciousness is rooted solely in alobha and adosa. Additionally, there is another group known as non-rooted individuals (ahetuka), whose rebirth moment is not associated with any of the aforementioned roots. These non-rooted individuals are typically born with visual or auditory impairments, or other intellectual and physical disabilities. Although their rebirth-determining kamma stems from wholesome deeds, it arises from relatively feeble wholesome kamma. This type of wholesome kamma occurs when individuals act out of ignorance, without recognising kusala as kusala; or while accumulating such wholesome deeds, their minds are shrouded by emotions such as anger, jealousy, or stinginess before and/or after doing wholesome deeds, or simply performing wholesome deeds just because they were instructed to do so by others. As a result of this inferior volition, the rebirth-linking-citta resulting from such kamma lacks significant potency. Thus, even upon obtaining a human rebirth, a flaw is present from the outset of rebirth. In Akkaṇasutta (AN 8.29), the Buddha it is a lost opportunity for someone "who is reborn in a central country. But they’re witless, dull, stupid, and unable to distinguish what is well said from what is poorly said." to realise the Dhamma. This refers to those non-rooted individuals (ahetuka), and that non-rooted individuals are often impaired intellectually and maybe physically in most cases. Due to such kammic inferiority, they cannot realise the Dhamma in their present human rebirth at all.

Are you wondering whether you're classified as a two-rooted or non-rooted individual instead of a three-rooted one? If you have experienced nimitta or attained jhāna, then you belong to the three-rooted category. Similarly, if you possess the ability to recollect past lives and contemplate cause and effect relationships, you also fall into the three-rooted category. But distinguishing between two-rooted and three-rooted individuals can be challenging because both types may excel academically, as academic teachings primarily stimulate saññā rather than paññā as the latter genuine insight (vipassanā) wisdom. Therefore, a general guideline is that if you can perceive nimitta, you belong to the three-rooted category. However, not all three-rooted individuals will necessarily attain enlightenment or comprehend the noble truths, as other conditions must also be fulfilled. For example, if they abstain from meditation entirely, reaching Nibbāna is impossible. Additionally, individuals devoid of desire and lacking in effort will not achieve enlightenment, regardless of the quality of their rebirth-consciousness as lack of diligence or laziness will hinder the realisation of enlightenment in one's current lifetime.

(b) Saṅkhāra conditions Resultant Consciousness (Vipāka-viññāṇa throughout the Present Existence)

Consciousness that are outcomes of kamma are paṭisandhi-citta (rebirth-linking consciousness), bhavaṅga-citta (life-continuum consciousness) and cuti-citta (death consciousness). Apart from these citta, kamma can also yield results during the pavatti period, which is the time between the rebirth moment and the last death moment of one's life.

Most notably, eye consciousness (cakkhuviññāṇa), ear consciousness (sotaviññāṇa), nose consciousness (ghānaviññāṇa), tongue consciousness (jivhāviññāṇa) and body consciousness (kāyaviññāṇa) are predominantly products of kamma. Other consciousness, which I think the reader may not be familiar with unless you have studied Abhidhamma or have discerned mentality, that are outcomes of kamma include sampaticchana-citta (receiving consciousness), santīraṇa-citta (examining consciousness) and tadārammaṇa-citta (registration consciousness) of the five-door mental processes.

It is also important to note that these consciousnesses do not exclusively arise from kamma. Several present conditions are required. For example, for the eye consciousness (cakkhuviññāṇa) to arise to there needs to be eye base (cakkhupasāda) that is a product of kamma. Subsequently, a visible object (rūpārammaṇa) that interacts with this eye base. Moreover, light (āloka), attention (manasikāra) and contact (phassa) needs to be present for eye consciousness to arise. As eye consciousness arises dependent on the convergence of the eye and the visible form, it wouldn't be accurate to claim that eye consciousness perpetually resides in the eyeball. Rather, it emerges or manifests when the requisite conditions are present. Likewise, all other kamma-resultant consciousnesses arise supported by kamma and manifest when the conditions of the base and object intersect; otherwise, they remain dormant. Thus, during the pavatti (between rebirth and death) period, kamma yields results in the form of vipāka-citta (resultant consciousness) to yield resultant effects.

Even for the eye consciousness (cakkhuviññāṇa), there are two types of eye consciousness: one that is a resultant of unwholesome actions (akusala-vipāka) and the other from wholesome actions (kusala-vipāka). When witnessing something unfavourable (aniṭṭhārammaṇa), the eye consciousness that emerges is a result of unwholesome kamma. Conversely, when witnessing something favourable (iṭṭhārammaṇa), the eye consciousness that emerges is a result of wholesome kamma. Similarly, when hearing with the ear, nose, tongue and body, all these sensory perceptions of unpleasant stimuli result from unwholesome kamma, while those of pleasant stimuli result from wholesome kamma. These resultant consciousnesses cannot be altered since they occur due to kamma as the main condition. However, what we can strive to do is consistently cultivate wise attention, as regardless of an object's pleasantness or unpleasantness, wholesomeness can always arise with wise attention.

In the next post, we'll explore viññāṇapaccayā nāmarūpaṃ: with consciousness as condition, mentality and materiality arises.